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Finally, there is the finally clause. You use it to do housekeeping after a possible exception. It is combined with a try clause (but not an except clause): x = None try: x = 1/0 finally: print 'Cleaning up...' del x In the preceding, you are guaranteed that the finally clause will get executed, no matter what exceptions occur in the try clause. (The reason for initializing x before the try clause is that otherwise it would never get assigned a value because of the ZeroDivisionError. This would lead to an exception when using del on it within the finally clause, which you wouldn t catch.) If you run this, the cleanup comes before the program crashes and burns: Cleaning up... Traceback (most recent call last): File "C:\python\div.py", line 4, in x = 1/0 ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

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In practice, it tends to be that more-advanced Rails developers write tests whereas beginners tend not to. This is why testing isn t covered in depth here, although a good resource to learn about the ins and outs of testing Rails applications is A Guide to Testing The Rails, available online at http://manuals.rubyonrails.com/read/book/5. The guide is a little old, but covers all the basics. As integration tests were added at a later stage, they are not covered at this time.

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At the lowest level, computers are entirely number-based, with everything represented by streams of numbers. A language such as Ruby insulates you from the internal workings of the computer, and numbers in Ruby are used for mostly the same things that you use numbers for in real life, such as counting, logical comparisons, arithmetic, and so on. Let s look at how you can use numbers in these ways in Ruby and how to do something with them.

When programming, an expression is a combination of numbers, operators (such as + or -), and variables that, when understood by the computer, result in an answer of some form. For example, these are all expressions:

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The top four expressions all work right away with irb (try them out now!) and get the answers you d expect from such basic operations (1 + 2 results in 3, "a" + "b" + "c" results in abc, and so on). Brackets (parentheses) work the same way as with regular arithmetic. Anything inside brackets is calculated first (or, more technically, given higher precedence).

Exceptions and functions work together quite naturally. If an exception is raised inside a function, and isn t handled there, it propagates (bubbles up) to the place where the function was called. If it isn t handled there either, it continues propagating until it reaches the main program (the global scope), and if there is no exception handler there, the program halts with an error message and some information about what went wrong (a stack trace). Let s take a look at an example: >>> def faulty(): ... raise Exception('Something is wrong') ... >>> def ignore_exception(): ... faulty() ...

Note You can work through all the topics in this chapter using irb, the immediate Ruby interpreter. If you

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get stuck at any point, simply leave irb by typing exit at any time, and start irb again as demonstrated in 1.

Expressions are used regularly throughout all computer programs, and not just with numbers. However, an understanding of how expressions and operations work with numbers immediately translates into a basic knowledge of how they work with text, lists, and other items too.

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